Africa Wild

Historically, the pangolin trade has been fueled by traditional Chinese medicine, which values pangolin scales for their medicinal qualities, despite the fact that they only contain keratin, the same substance found in human hair and fingernails. However, China recently banned the trade of pangolins within the country, which may help stop, or at least stall, the global trade of the species. Pangolins are also hunted and traded for their meat, which is considered to be a delicacy in some countries, including many African nations.

The loss of the species in the KwaZulu-Natal is mainly due to pangolin poaching and trafficking, although Temminck’s pangolins are also commonly electrocuted by the fences separating parks, nature reserves and private properties.

With the demise of the Asian pangolin populations, we suspect an increasingly severe level of poaching within southern Africa on a commercial scale, which thus represents an emerging threat to this species.
Commercial harvesting pressure will synergise with the existing threats (such as high mortality rates from electric fences and local poaching for traditional medicine), as well as past habitat loss, so that a decline of 30% is likely over a 27-year period (three generations) between 2005 (c. when illegal trade began to escalate) and 2032.

With the dramatic decline in the Asian pangolin populations and increased difficulties in securing pangolins in the Asian range states, trade will
increasingly shift to Africa. Thus, although other southern African countries are bearing the brunt of this increased trade at present, it is believed that this illicit trade will increasingly affect the South African population as well. Based on the levels of exploitation and rate of population decline observed for the Asian pangolin species, which occur at similar densities to Temminck’s Ground Pangolin, it is projected that this increased trade may rapidly lead to population reduction in the region.

In KwaZulu-Natal Province, the population currently only occurs in the extreme north and appears to be very small (Figure 1). Historically, KwaZulu-Natal almost certainly had a larger population (Murray 2015), but it is believed that persecution for muthi and food, as well as animals being removed from the wild and presented to tribal chiefs and statesmen as gifts, and to a lesser extent habitat loss, has almost eradicated the species (Ngwenya 2001; Pietersen et al. 2014a).

While most land-uses (including formally protected areas, game farms and livestock ranches) within the remaining EOO are habitable for pangolins, the effects of illegal hunting and electric fences may have significantly reduced occupancy.

The population is inferred and suspected to be declining, primarily due to increasing illicit local and international trade. The prevalence of this species in urban traditional medicine markets (Whiting et al. 2011), and the high numbers observed in the rural traditional medicine trade in north-eastern and eastern South Africa (A. Baiyewu unpubl. data) provide empirical evidence that the species is declining in north-eastern and eastern South Africa, especially outside of conservation areas. It is thought that the subpopulation in KwaZulu Natal Province is unviable and almost regionally extinct due to the traditional medicine and bushmeat trade (Ngwenya 2001; Pietersen et al. 2014a). The international trade of individuals collected from southern Africa has increased significantly in recent years (Challender & Hywood 2012), where local authorities in southern Africa are confiscating greater numbers of Temminck’s Ground Pangolin contraband (two individuals in 2000 compared to 40 in 2013). This prompted the uplisting of the species globally to Vulnerable A4d (Pietersen et al. 2014c). While South Africa remains relatively secure (with Zimbabwe and Namibia suffering the greatest losses), we suspect poachers will increasingly target South Africa in the future.

Richprins wrote: ↑Sat Jul 18, 2020 4:17 pm I think pangolin are still far easier to find in central and west Africa, but as those are used up more pressure will be put on SA populations, where it has been mostly local muti consumption up to now?

THREATS
Although present in a number of protected areas across their range and protected by law in all range states (though not included as a protected species in all range states), it is inferred that Temminck's Pangolin numbers are declining due to an increasing demand for their body parts, including scales, for local and international use for medicinal purposes and superstitious value (Coulson 1985, Cunningham and Zondi 1991, Bräutigam et al. 1994, Whiting et al. 2011, Swart 2013, Xu et al. 2016, Baiyewu et al. 2018). Over-exploitation of Temminck's Pangolin for medicinal use is occurring in South Africa and elsewhere throughout its range, and is increasingly focused on core conservation areas (Cunningham and Zondi 1991, Baiyewu et al. 2018).

There has been a sharp increase in the number of individuals that have been seized from illegal trade since 2010 (APWG unpubl. data, Tikki Hywood Foundation unpubl. data). Although the final market for these individuals is unknown, the majority were confiscated in rural areas suggesting local use, although some were confiscated in ports and high-end suburbs suggesting that at least some individuals are likely destined for international markets or for local consumption, potentially by foreigners. This is further supported by large shipments of scales being exported from East Africa to Asia (Xu et al. 2016).
A number of seizures of African pangolins or their body parts in Asia (or en route to Asia) provide evidence of an intercontinental trade in African pangolins to Asian markets (Challender and Hywood 2012, Xu et al. 2016, Cheng et al. 2017, Heinrich et al. 2017). The demand for, and price of, pangolin products in Asia appears to be increasing, and traffickers are turning their attention to the African species. As syndicates smuggling pangolins (and rhino horn and ivory) from Africa to Asia become ever more sophisticated and as the Asian pangolin numbers dwindle, so African pangolin species have become more important as source populations for the Asian markets.
Across its range Temminck’s Pangolin is increasingly threatened by shifting agriculture, small-holder farming and agro-industry farming. These farming practices are directly impacting pangolins through habitat loss and alteration, while the increased human presence in these previously undisturbed areas is resulting in increased levels of poaching. Nomadic grazing is also having a negative impact on Temminck’s Pangolins across their range as a result of increased levels of poaching. In Zimbabwe, and likely in other parts of this species’ range, artisanal mining is negatively impacting pangolins and other wildlife species. Artisanal mining results in the creation of deep mining pits which are invariably abandoned once the mineral reserves are depleted. These pits are left uncovered and form lethal pitfall traps into which various animals fall and cannot escape. Artisanal mining also affects pangolins through increased rates of poaching and habitat destruction, while a lot of these mining activities (especially in Zimbabwe) occur within the borders of National Parks and other protected areas.
Temminck's Pangolins are regularly electrocuted on the lower strands of electrified fences in South Africa in particular (Beck 2008, Pietersen et al. 2014), but also throughout their range where electrified fences are prevalent. The mortality rate for South Africa is estimated at 2–13% of the total population per annum (Pietersen et al. 2016). Fencing is becoming more prevalent across this species’ range, and although not all of these fences are electrified, these fences are likely to become more prevalent and more widespread. Road mortalities are also having a negative impact on the species (Coulson 1989, Pietersen et al. 2014). In South Africa and Namibia accidental bycatch of Temminck’s Pangolins in gin traps that have been set for other species is also a threat, while in Zimbabwe substantial habitat alteration and loss of protected areas due to changes in the land use systems since independence has further impacted populations (L. Hywood, unpubl. data). Elsewhere in Africa local and international trade and habitat loss are the main threats, although reports of accidental electrocutions are increasingly reported from across the species’ range (L. Hywood, E. Connelly and D.W. Pietersen, unpubl. data).

USE AND TRADE
The species is eaten as bushmeat to various extents across its range (for example in South Africa, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Mozambique and Tanzania), although its use as bushmeat appears to be limited. Of greater threat is overexploitation for body parts and scales which have superstitious and spiritual value and which are extensively used for medicinal purposes (Cunningham and Zondi 1991, Bräutigam et al. 2004, Setlalekgomo 2014, Baiyewu et al. 2018).

In Tanzania, Temminck’s Pangolins are sometimes referred to as Bwana mganga ('the doctor') because every part is believed to have some medicinal value (Wright 1954). Many East African people believe that burning pangolin scales keeps lions away (Kingdon 1971). Across their range the scales are widely believed to bring good luck and to bring rain, while smoke from burning scales is said to improve the health of cattle and cure persistent nose-bleeds. The amaZulu believe that seeing a pangolin indicates that there will be a drought, and the only way to prevent the drought is by killing the animal (Kyle 2000). Scales are also used as talismans and in traditional dress (Kyle 2000, Manwa and Ndamba 2011).
In Zimbabwe it is traditionally a good omen to catch and present a pangolin to a superior such as a local chief (Coulson 1985) and 25 individuals were reportedly captured and presented to the Zimbabwean president and other authority figures at the onset of majority rule in Zimbabwe.

Between 2008 and 2018 more than 100 Temminck’s Pangolins were seized in Africa, each comprising one individual (Challender et al. 2019). In South Africa, trade has increased dramatically with 10 individuals seized in 2016, 16 in 2017 and 43 in 2018 (APWG unpubl. data). In addition to local use, there is increasing evidence that at least some of the trade is destined for international markets (Challender and Hywood 2012, Xu et al. 2016).

Traditional medicine, bushmeat trade and international trade

An additional threat faced by pangolins is their use for traditional medicine (muthi) and as a source of food (Ansell 1960; Kingdon 1971; Coulson 1989; Heath 1992, and references therein; Bräutigam et al. 1994; Heath & Coulson 1997). Throughout their range pangolins are revered for their perceived medicinal and magical powers and are also killed out of ignorance, as well as to obtain their scales for inclusion in traditional dresses and ornamentations (Kingdon 1971;Heath & Coulson 1997, and references therein;Kyle 2000; Soewu & Ayodele 2009; Manwa & Ndamba 2011).
Nearly all parts of pangolins are used in muthi and ceremonies, including those intended to produce rain, seek favour from higher authorities and cure various ailments (Kingdon 1971; Heath & Coulson 1997, and references therein; Kyle 2000; Soewu & Ayodele 2009). Jacobsen et al. (1991) recorded three instances of pangolins being killed for food, while a fourth individual was shot for no apparent reason. In the Kalahari, many farm workers will eat pangolins that are found dead, although few profess to actively seeking them as food. Older literature also suggests that pangolins were actively sought for food in eastern South Africa (Kirby 1896). The extent to which pangolins are being used in the local muthi trade and as a source of food has not yet been quantified, but it is known to be high in both the urban muthi markets and rural areas (R. Bruyns, pers. comm., 26 June 2011; A. Baiyewu, pers. comm., 26 June 2011). This species is now ecologically extinct in KwaZulu-Natal (Kyle 2000; Friedmann & Daly 2004; APWG, unpubl. data), an area that probably formerly supported a healthy population. It is believed that this rarity is largely due to direct persecution for muthi (Ngwenya 2001) and food, animals being removed from the wild and presented to tribal chiefs and statesmen as gifts, and to a lesser extent habitat loss.

Figure 3 (33 pangolins in 2013) indicates the number of pangolins confiscated from illicit trade between 1 January 2000 and 31 December 2013 in Southern Africa. Although it is unknown whether the confiscated individuals reported on above were destined for local or international markets, the confiscation of a number of animals in up-market urban suburbs and harbours suggests that at least some of them were destined for international markets or consumption by foreigners now living in southern Africa.

Currently, no information exists regarding the off-take levels or demand for this species as a source of traditional medicine in South Africa and what this potential demand may have on the current population status. Ferreira et al. (2012) confirmed that data on the commerce of medicinal animals is difficult to obtain because many of the vendors do not admit to the fact that they utilize or sell animals or animal-based products knowing that it could be illegal.
Therefore, until we can adequately determine the prevalence and turn-over rates of a particular species within markets, in addition to the use of that species within rural areas, we will not be able to quantify the potential threats the species may be exposed to as a result of harvesting levels.

The results of this study indicate that Temminck’s ground pangolin is still highly sought after and used regularly in traditional medicine practices within rural tribal communities within the distribution range of the species in South Africa.

During a year-long study at Tswalu Kalahari Reserve in the Northern Cape Province, Beck (2008) recorded an electrocution rate of 0.033
individuals/km/year, or one pangolin electrocuted per year for every 30 km of electrified fence.

it is conservatively estimated that between 436 and 1190 pangolins are electrocuted in southern Africa every year.

To track the illegal pangolin trade from Africa to Asia, we analyzed 1800 DNA samples from 30 seizures of African pangolin scales in Hong Kong during the period 2012–2016. We concluded that all four African pangolin species were present in trade, and that the white-bellied pangolin (Phataginus tricuspis) appeared most frequently (88.5%) in our samples.

P. tricuspis was represented by 1459 samples detected among the 30 consignment seizures, and accounting for the majority (88.5%) of the samples analyzed. The other three species were present in a relatively smaller number of samples/seizures: P. tetradactyla (119/19), S. gigantea (61/6), and S. temminckii (9/1).

The consignments were smuggled into Hong Kong from six countries by air or by sea (Table S1 and Fig. 2). Nigeria was the major export country involved in 20 seizures, followed by Cameroon (six seizures). Ivory Coast, Uganda and Ghana each were involved in one and Kenya in two seizures.

Phataginus tricuspis was detected together with the other African pangolin species in most seizures, predominantly with P. tetradactyla. The range of these two pangolins, together with S. gigantea, overlap throughout much of Central and West Africa. Our results suggest that these three species are probably being trafficked together in the range areas. The fourth species (S. temminckii) from Eastern and Southern Africa, was only found in a single seizure from Uganda.

The present data suggests that the western central Africa lineage of P. tricuspis is a major source of the illegal trade.